The Force Publique and Frontier Warfare in the Late 19th Century Congo Free State

During the late 19th Century, Force Publique of the Congo Free State (1878-1908) found itself engaged in almost continuous fighting. Its campaigns against indigenous peoples, mutineers, interloping African Empires, and wars of expansion against the Mahdists, constitute some of the most diverse examples of frontier warfare of the period. Yet, they remain largely unknown compared to the colonial campaigns of Britain and France, despite offering many of the same lessons. This article will explore the means through which the Force Publique learnt tactical lessons and developed a colonial military tradition independently – though with many degrees of similarity – from its colonial neighbours. In doing so, it will reflect on the degree to which there was inherent overlaps in European approaches to late 19th Century frontier warfare.