Subjective well-being indicators for large-scale assessment of cultural ecosystem services

The substantial importance of cultural benefits as a source of human well-being is increasingly recognised in

society-environment interactions. The integration of cultural ecosystem services (CES) into the ecosystem

services framework remains a challenge due to the difficulties associated with defining, articulating and

measuring CES. We operationalise a novel framework developed by the UK National Ecosystem Assessment

that identifies CES as the interactions between environmental spaces (i.e. physical localities or landscapes), and

the activities that occur there. We evaluate the benefits of the CES provided by 151 UK marine sites to

recreational sea anglers and divers, using subjective well-being indicators. Factor analysis of an online

questionnaire with 1220 participants revealed multiple CES benefits that contribute to human wellbeing e.g.

including ‘engagement with nature’, ‘place identity’ and ‘therapeutic value’. In addition to regional differences,

we also found that biophysical attributes of sites, such as the presence of charismatic species and species

diversity, were positively associated with provision of CES benefits. The study provides evidence that could be

used to inform designation of protected areas. The indicators used in the study may also be adapted for use

across a range of marine and terrestrial spaces for improved integration of CES in environmental decisionmaking.