Spatiotemporal patterns of elephant and chimpanzee occurrence amid hunting in an unprotected African rainforest

Anthropogenic pressures are driving major declines in mammals, especially in unprotected areas. However, our understanding of how mammals coexist with humans and adapt to hunting in human-dominated landscapes remains limited. Here, we used long-term data (2008–2023) from an unprotected biodiversity hotspot facing hunting pressure and impending logging to model how Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees and African forest elephants respond to hunting. We found that elephant occurrence was mostly associated with higher elevations and greater village distance, declined with increasing terrain ruggedness, and was not sensitive to hunting. In contrast, chimpanzee occurrence increased strongly with terrain ruggedness, moderately with elevation, and non-linearly with village distance. It decreased with increasing hunting intensity. During 2008–2023, elephant occurrence remained generally stable but increased in high elevations and near rivers. Concurrently, chimpanzee occurrence declined, especially in areas with high hunting intensity and the species occurred increasingly away from villages. Overall, our findings suggest that hunting may predominately impact chimpanzees. Meanwhile, elephants may be more vulnerable to industrial logging that began after this study, likely outcompeting them in flatter areas. Our results highlight the urgent need to identify and secure key areas for both species to ensure their long-term persistence alongside other land uses in this biodiversity hotspot.