Snakebite envenomation and predation of domestic animals in Goa, India

Introduction: Snakebite envenomation of domestic animals remains globally underreported and poorly addressed within policy frameworks. In India, the absence of a centralised database limits understanding of its veterinary and socioeconomic impacts. Methods: This study used qualitative analysis of 56 in-depth interviews with veterinarians, pet owners, livestock keepers, forest officials, herpetologists, snake rescuers, and community members across Goa to examine treatment gaps, policy deficiencies, and human responses to animal snakebite mortality. Results: Findings revealed systemic weaknesses in veterinary infrastructure, inconsistent anti-snake venom (ASV) availability, and the absence of standardised treatment protocols, leading to preventable deaths and financial strain on owners. Dogs were most frequently treated for envenomation (primarily from Russell’s vipers and spectacled cobras), resulting from guarding behaviour, while python predation disproportionately affected cats, poultry, and small pets, often provoking retaliatory killings and emotional distress. Livestock deaths attributed to snakebite were frequently recorded without verification, either to facilitate compensation claims or due to diagnostic limitations. Compensation was restricted to livestock purchased under the government’s Kamdhenu scheme, a programme supporting the purchase of cows and buffaloes for dairy production, with no provisions for privately owned animals. Discussion: Key recommendations that emerge comprise documentation of cases; mandatory ASV stocking in veterinary hospitals; expansion of emergency veterinary care services; structured compensation schemes for privately owned livestock and pets; and greater integration of veterinarians into wildlife conflict mitigation strategies, along with awareness of responsible pet ownership. Without these interventions, snakebite mortality in domestic animals will remain poorly documented, poorly managed, and largely ignored within India’s broader wildlife policy landscape.