Transitions and conflicts: patterns and drivers of human–elephant conflict in a changing pastoral landscape of northern Kenya

Human–elephant conflict (HEC) represents a major challenge for elephant conservation, as it not only fosters negative attitudes towards elephants, but also has socio-economic consequences, including loss of human lives, damage to property, and loss of livelihoods. These effects often motivate retaliatory actions against elephants, including illegal killing. While abundant research exists on the socio-economic impacts of crop raiding in agricultural areas, HEC in pastoral areas remains understudied and poorly understood as a conservation challenge. Here, we explore the nature, spatiotemporal trends, and potential drivers of HEC in 12 community conservancies of the Laikipia–Samburu ecosystem, a pastoral landscape of northern Kenya interspersed with expanding areas of agriculture. We analysed a decade of HEC records (2012–2021) and interviewed ten key informants working within community conservancies in the region. We found that HEC in our conservancies occurred throughout the study period, but different incident types peaked at different times of the year. Most HEC incidents occurred during the dry season when competition for resources increased. Incidents involving livestock and human injuries and fatalities were more spatially dispersed compared to crop raiding, which was concentrated in agricultural areas. The interviews revealed an array of issues that drive conflict, including environmental changes, socio-economic pressures affecting pastoral communities, and political motivations. Accumulated frustration due to the ongoing conflict emerged as a primary cause of increasingly negative attitudes toward elephants among the pastoral communities, leading to elephant mortalities. Understanding the underlying causes of conflict will be essential for developing effective mitigation strategies.