Spatiotemporal variability in how species’ traits elicit human wellbeing

Biodiversity declines are accelerating globally, impacting ecosystem functioning, with consequences for human health. Interactions with biodiversity can benefit human wellbeing, leading to avoided healthcare costs. However, existing research does not account for the species within ecological communities and their effect traits that elicit wellbeing (e.g. colours, sounds). Many species’ effect traits are seasonal, and spatial variation in exposure to ecosystems by different sectors of society can lead to unequal opportunities to gain wellbeing. Here, we use a novel analytical approach to explore how the relationship between forest biodiversity and wellbeing fluctuates: (1) temporally, between different seasons, and (2) spatially, across the socioeconomic deprivation continuum of a human population at a national scale (England and Wales). Forest species’ effect trait richness is spatially heterogeneous, particularly in autumn, spring, and summer. Broadleaf forests have greater species’ effect trait richness than other categories of forest. Forests with higher species’ effect trait richness, and forests that resulted in higher self-reported participant wellbeing, were in areas with the least socioeconomic deprivation. Forest creation/restoration and nature-health interventions must recognise this ecological and social diversity to ensure initiatives are equitable and socially just. Conserving biodiversity will therefore better deliver ecosystems that underpin healthier individuals and societies.