Face to Face: Euro-American Perceptions of Native American Head and Facial Appearance c. 1585 - 1850

This thesis evaluates the prominence and role of head and facial appearance in Euro-American framings of Native Americans from c. 1585 to 1850. While much has been written about the generalised characterisation of Native American appearances, less has been said about the specificity of head and facial appearance. This research refocuses the lens on an undervalued but important facet of appearance, in turn offering a greater insight into the dynamics of cultural encounters. It utilises an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating the teachings of Indigenous studies, art history, and medical history to provide a comprehensive insight into how facial appearance was understood. It explores a range of sources, tracking the depiction of Native Americans in portraiture, travel literature, and captivity narratives. In doing so, it centres the head as a critical site of Euro-American projections of Indigeneity across multiple regions and centuries, demonstrating how otherwise innocuous features were used to project a plethora of assumptions that still carry prevalence in the modern day.

The scope of this thesis largely follows Anglo developments in America, starting with the establishment of Roanoke in 1585 and tracking the development of the United States through to 1850. Divided into five chronological chapters, this thesis explores the evolving understanding and treatment of facial appearance. Chapter One tracks depictions in text and artwork from 1585 to 1700 and offers an introduction to the key themes of the thesis, establishing how facial appearance was used by Europeans to frame ideas around culture, religion, and gender. Chapter Two explores the themes of materiality and physicality, focusing on the development of Atlantic trade from 1700 to 1735. It argues that the head remained positioned as an important site of performing identity, and head-based stylings did not change considerably, even while new materials were used and adapted by Native Americans. For their part, Europeans observed physical features of the Indigenous face in more detail, aiding developments in racialisation.

Chapter Three, tracking depictions from 1735 to 1773, contends with how far racialisation affected Euro-American characterisations of Native American head and facial appearance. It considers the portrayal of individuals against generalised descriptions, demonstrating that individuals were rarely able to break free of stereotype. Chapter Four considers the establishment of the United States, highlighting the disparity between idealised imagery and 'real' observations of Native Americans between 1773 to 1815. Chapter Five highlights the role of head and facial appearance in cementing a homogenised and historical image of Indigeneity, exploring depictions from 1815 to 1850. This chapter asserts the position of head-based appearance in creating fictionalised figures, as well as its significance in physiognomic and racialised theories such as phrenology.

Fundamentally, this thesis demonstrates head and facial appearance was central to Euro-American ideas of Indigeneity. In turn, Native Americans were ascribed certain behaviours and characteristics, which held long term consequences in how communities were understood and depicted.