Co-designing VR chemistry labs: Pre–post learning changes, reshaped classroom dynamics & deployment lessons for real-world rollout in post-primary schools

Experiential learning is central to chemistry education, yet post-primary schools face persistent constraints related to cost, safety, and infrastructure that limit hands-on laboratory access. While immersive VR has demonstrated potential for conceptual and procedural learning, comparatively less is known about how VR-based procedural chemistry learning can be co-designed for adolescents, integrated with teacher orchestration, and implemented under authentic school constraints. This paper investigates how Virtual Reality (VR) can be designed and implemented as a deployable, pedagogically grounded classroom infrastructure for post-primary chemistry education. We report findings from a 25-month, three-phase participatory co-design study involving 137 stakeholders, including students, teachers, pre-service teachers, school leaders, parents, and domain experts. The study culminated in the development and real-world classroom deployment of a VR-based acid–base titration experience. Quantitative analyses showed significant pre–post increases following participation in the VR experience in conceptual knowledge (pre: M = 7.81, post: M = 9.52, p < .001) and curriculum-aligned procedural knowledge (pre: M = 4.71, post: M = 9.14, p < .001). Qualitative findings indicated learner autonomy, confidence, and engagement during VR-supported activities. Beyond individual learning outcomes, the study illustrates how VR can reshape classroom ecology by enabling self-paced procedural practice and shifting teacher roles toward facilitation and orchestration. Findings also highlight the need to balance adolescent learners’ autonomy with appropriate scaffolding through adjustable guidance, pacing control, and on-demand support. Finally, the study identifies key sociotechnical conditions for sustainable classroom integration, including alignment with teacher practices, assessment needs, and classroom constraints. By linking learning outcomes with classroom deployment and design rationale, this work contributes a holistic account of how immersive technologies can move beyond novelty toward viable use in post-primary education.