Beyond global data: Improving our understanding of the global protected and conserved area network

Target 3 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, which calls for 30% of land and sea to be conserved through protected and conserved areas by 2030, has the potential to enable transformative change in how people manage and benefit from conservation areas. However, as this commitment is primarily fulfilled through national-level implementation, understanding the factors that influence its operationalisation within countries is vital to identify opportunities and challenges associated. There is also a need for approaches based on national-level data to better evaluate the effectiveness of the global protected and conserved area network and inform future action, given that official global databases do not adequately capture the diversity of sites that contribute to Target 3. Moreover, with the increased recognition of the role of Indigenous Peoples and local communities in reaching Target 3, there is an emerging need to reevaluate the tools used to quantify the conservation contributions of the lands that they manage. This thesis explores the importance of looking beyond global data, and the opportunities for using local-level data and expertise to understand the drivers, current status and future needs of the global protected and conserved area network. It also critically evaluates how the available global maps on Indigenous Peoples and local communities' lands are created and used in conservation. First, I investigate the factors that influence protected and conserved area establishment and coverage patterns around the world through a modified Delphi technique. I find that more factors influence this process in low-/middle-income countries compared to high-income countries and that more non-environmental factors are influential than environmental ones. These findings demonstrate the spectrum of opportunities and challenges faced by different countries when progressing towards Target 3, and highlight the importance of targeted support to catalyse progress. Second, I build on an existing framework to identify a sample set of countries and associated sampling units that are representative of global protected and conserved area coverage and biodiversity distribution patterns, so that the identified sample can be used to estimate the extent and effectiveness of the global protected and conserved area network. I find that doubling the sample size used in the original framework only increases the number of countries in the sample by one, demonstrating that a larger sample can be used with minimum impact on data collection efforts. Third, I collect and analyse data from the countries within the sample and find that we may be closer to reaching the quantitative component of Target 3 than indicated by globally reported figures. This is by accounting for area types that are often missing from such databases but are compatible with existing and emerging definitions for protected and conserved areas. I also illustrate the contributions such areas can make to improving the ecological effectiveness of the global network. Fourth, I propose a conceptual framework, underpinned by data justice principles, that can be used as a reflective tool by creators and users of global maps on Indigenous Peoples and local communities. By applying this framework to five published maps I show that critically assessing the histories, motivations, methods and assumptions relevant to such maps can help mitigate harms of their use, particularly within conservation, including in relation to Target 3. Overall, my findings provide a valuable evidence-base to inform future action relevant to the global protected and conserved area network, as well as how targets related to these areas can be adapted and tracked more robustly at both global and national scales. More widely, the approaches I have used have relevance beyond Target 3 and can be harnessed to evaluate progress towards other global and local targets relevant to area-based conservation.