Teachers identified intrinsic barriers to learning as those related to RRBs as well as physical and sensory needs. It is perhaps unsurprising that these two areas are linked to the diagnostic criteria for autism in DSM-V (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and relate to specific difficulties teachers may need to address with autistic pupils.

Within this subtheme, a number of different areas linked to RRBs were considered. Rigidity in thought was mentioned and examples were given, such as a pupil not being able to use initiative in varying circumstances and only operating within particular parameters. The discussion also involved ritualistic and habitual repetitive behaviours which can interfere in learning. One participant gave the example of a pupil who needed to conduct certain rituals before they could access learning, saying, ‘you couldn’t get anything out of her until she had done that’. Another participant stated, ‘it’s about managing that, saying it’s ok for you to do that but not all of the time because that is restricting your experiences in school’. Restricted interests, transitions and difficulty with change were also mentioned by teachers from both focus groups as potentially impacting pupils’ access to learning.

Physical and sensory needs were also identified as potential barriers to learning. Both sensory seeking behaviours and sensory aversions were discussed as well as basic physical needs. Participants mentioned sensory distractions as well as the specific sensory requirements of some pupils before they could settle to learn. The diversity of sensory needs was recognised and one participant acknowledged that ‘their sensory regulation is on a huge spectrum’. Basic physical needs such as hunger, sleep difficulties and medical needs were also seen as possible barriers to learning, as they would for any pupil. It was identified that ‘there seems to be some patterns…physiologically’ for autistic pupils, with bowel difficulties given as an example. Sensory input was considered across both focus groups to be helpful for pupils who may have sensory-seeking behaviour and it was viewed as necessary for teachers to be aware of the sensory needs of individual pupils and any such difficulties pupils may be facing.

These areas were identified as skill gaps which would result in barriers to learning and included emotional regulation, learning behaviours and difficulties with functional communication. Deficits in these skill areas may result in barriers for any learner, however difficulties are likely to be exacerbated for pupils on the autism spectrum due to their specific needs.

Emotional states were discussed by many teachers throughout both focus groups as significantly impacting access to learning. Anxiety and frustration were specifically identified as problematic alongside difficulties in children recognising, regulating and coping with their emotional states. There were discussions of ‘recognising their own emotions’ and supporting children to ‘cope with the situations when they go wrong’. Anxiety and heightened emotional states may be considered consequences of other difficulties rather than barriers in themselves, however it was clear from the focus group discussions that the regulation and managing of pupils’ emotional states were one of the biggest challenges for both pupils and teachers.

Another idea that emerged from conversation involved learning behaviours. Areas discussed as making a positive difference to learning included attention skills, focus, readiness to learn, engagement, enjoyment in learning, confidence, self-esteem, risk-taking and problem solving. The discussion suggested that, although these skills are ‘expected’, they are not usually taught directly or assessed through the curriculum regardless of how necessary they are for learning to begin. One participant expressed the idea that ‘learning isn’t just about learning subjects’. Another teacher gave an example of the impact of small steps in these learning behaviours which actually represent great progress for the individual pupil:

Communication was a final area discussed in relation to skill gaps resulting in barriers to learning. Almost all teachers across both focus groups strongly agreed that an effective form of communication, in whatever way was most suitable for that child, was necessary for learning to be able to take place. Teachers spoke of pupils being able to communicate their wants, needs and feelings and highlighted the need for the communication to be spontaneous and functional. One teacher gave the example of a pupil who used their own variations of signs to communicate which meant only staff who knew them well understood what they were trying to say. They explained, ‘she tries to communicate and then gets really angry and then the behaviours start so there’s a barrier already with her even thinking, “oh I won’t even bother then”’. The link between lack of functional communication abilities and other areas resulting in learning barriers, such as frustration and anxiety, was addressed throughout the discussion.

Emerging from the discussion was that the interactions between these intrinsic characteristics or needs of these pupils and their potential skill gaps provide a profile of barriers to learning that autistic children in special schools may face. The interaction of these various difficulties along with the heterogeneity of autism results in barriers which appear specific to this group of pupils.

This subtheme was evident through the entire course of both discussions with group agreement on the importance of the relationship between a pupil and teacher. Teachers talked about really knowing their pupils and explained, ‘we get to the point where we can read them well’. Participants also talked about the relationship from the opposite perspective and highlighted the importance of the pupils knowing and trusting the teacher. The length of time it can take to build those teacher-pupil relationships was acknowledged as a difficulty, with one teacher discussing the pupils who had been in their class for 9 months and stating, ‘I’ve only now really got to know them’.

Further difficulties were mentioned, such as the fact that pupils may not engage with an unfamiliar staff member as they would with someone they know well. It was recognised that if there is a good relationship with teachers then the pupils are ‘more inclined to show you what they’re capable of doing’. There was a strong accord among teachers that knowing a pupil well could make a huge difference to their progress in accessing their learning and overcoming the barriers identified in Theme 1.

Collaboration between teachers or school staff, both within a school and between schools, was described as beneficial to support pupils and effectively assess pupil progress. Teachers commented, ‘we do discuss it a lot as a class team’ and ‘sharing our expertise is key’. Collaboration was also mentioned as a way of reducing teacher workload. Discussing pupils’ needs and progress with support staff, other teachers and between schools was considered useful as it helped creativity with teaching and behaviour management strategies as well as addressing the areas described in Theme 1.

Teachers across the two focus groups recognised the importance of building relationships with parents and having an understanding of pupils’ home lives. One of the focus groups highlighted this as a crucial aspect of overcoming barriers. Teachers described progress that parents were particularly pleased with, which mainly involved socially appropriate life skills such as being able to take their child on holiday or out to a restaurant. Teachers identified that more support can be provided for parents when there is an awareness of circumstances at home. There seemed to be genuine positivity from teachers when they talked about collaborating with parents, whether sharing positive news about the pupil or receiving input from parents. The benefit of consistent approaches across home and school was also mentioned when discussing pupil progress.

Teachers stressed the importance of their pupils being able to generalise skills. They stated that it wasn’t enough to just teach skills in school but that pupils needed to be able to ‘transfer those skills’ to ‘different settings’ and display them with ‘a variety of adults’. The teachers repeatedly mentioned independence and self-care when discussing priorities for their pupils and highlighted specific skills such as hanging up their coat, using the toilet appropriately and using a knife and fork. Participants talked about teaching generalisation of skills in order for pupils to being able ‘to cope in the world’ and preparing pupils for life after school. There were discussions about supporting pupils to be present around large groups of people and to communicate with others outside of the structured environment in which they were taught. It was also acknowledged, however, that teachers face limitations to teaching skills in meaningful contexts. Although pupils may have opportunities to access the community through school, most teaching is restricted to school settings and it can be difficult to fully prepare pupils for everything they may come across in the ‘real world’. As one teacher identified, ‘you can’t replicate or anticipate every single situation or variation of situation that that person may come across. It’s impossible’.

Within the discussion of preparing pupils to manage outside of school, teachers talked about access to and engagement in the community. Accessing the community was discussed both in terms of the pupils being able to be physically present in public areas, such as swimming pools and restaurants, and also in terms of the public accepting the presence of the children in these community spaces. A large part of this subtheme involved prioritising the teaching of socially appropriate behaviours. Teachers mentioned the difficulties that may be faced for pupils and their families if they display behaviours such as eating with their hands, not being able to sit in a public place or removing clothes. Two participants discussed an example of one such important life skill:

The teachers talked about pupils having more opportunities in the future if they could learn skills such as these. A link was also evident with behaviours discussed in Theme 1 such as managing emotions, functional communication and RRBs.

Teachers identified that there is a difference between rote learning and real understanding. They acknowledged that, perhaps in part due to autistic pupils' restricted behaviours, skills are often learnt by rote and then performed within very specific parameters. They acknowledged that, when assessing skills, it was easy to assume that a pupil could do something with understanding when actually it was rote learnt. One teacher gave the following example:

The ability of teachers to distinguish between rote learning and real understanding was considered important, with one participant explaining, ‘there’s that danger… that we teach and they learn it in a rote fashion’. Another teacher used an example of echolalia, saying ‘you’d think they understand what you were saying but actually they’re just repeating’.

During both focus group discussions, teachers questioned how true mastery could be identified or whether it could even be defined. They questioned, for example, ‘how do you really know when a child’s completely generalised a skill?’ Evaluating mastery was considered an ongoing process during assessment, with some participants believing that true mastery can never be defined. Some teachers attempted to resolve this question by suggesting that there is an element of ‘just knowing’ that a child has mastered a skill. It was also suggested that the photographic and video evidence ‘proving’ a pupil has mastered a skill isn’t necessary to the extent that it is sometimes required.

Participants brought up potential difficulties around variation in teachers’ interpretations. Participants acknowledged that differing opinions or values can lead to varying perceptions of the same skill and they talked about the fact that ‘different staff members might have different thresholds’ when assessing a skill. One participant also acknowledged that assessment can be reflective of a teacher’s abilities as well as their opinions and values. A number of participants identified, with agreement from the group, that there is pressure on teachers to show progression in assessments, regardless of circumstances, ‘because children have always got to make progress…and you’re questioned if they don’t’. Comments were also made about the importance of precision and uniformity in assessments, both within schools and across schools, to ensure there is a common language and understanding around the progress assessed.

Teachers talked around the idea that assessments don’t always reflect the true ability of a pupil. They mentioned the importance of being able to evidence breadth of learning and record the different circumstances in which a child might be able to demonstrate a skill. This subtheme linked to the subtheme of rote learning vs true understanding, with the suggestion that assessments often don’t allow differentiation between these types of learning. One participant explained it was sometimes difficult to determine skill level:

When talking about the different needs of pupils on the autism spectrum, another participant stated, to mumbles of agreement from the group, ‘assessment tools don’t reflect that do they? They’re too rigid’.

Teachers talked about pupils’ learning happening alongside other learning in the wider context of their lives. Participants highlighted that a central part of teaching at school is about ‘developing the whole child’. One teacher spoke of the artificiality of considering skills in isolation from this wider context. They explained:

This holistic approach of looking at the whole pupil rather than looking at individual skills in isolation appeared important to teachers, particularly when it came to assessment.

Teachers recognised the heterogeneity of autism, mentioning that autism is a spectrum condition and that each child is ‘unique and individual’ with a diverse range of needs. They discussed that they often need to adapt assessments to suit the needs of the pupils they teach. One example was the necessity to modify statutory speaking assessments for pupils who were pre-verbal and it was noted that the onus was on the teacher to adapt assessments accordingly. Some participants spoke of a desire for ‘bespoke assessment systems’ which allow an element of personalisation. One participant was sceptical of this possibility, however, and stated, ‘a perfect catch all cover all assessment system…I can’t imagine it, not something that could cover every single child’. Another participant responded by suggesting that it is up to the teacher to select appropriate assessments and commented, ‘I think it’s our responsibility maybe to find other tools for certain children to make it more individual because, as you say, not one size fits all’. One participant, however, had concerns about this in terms of teacher workload and stated reservations about teachers ‘reinventing the wheel’ rather than collaborating and sharing effective assessment practice within and across schools. This subtheme captured the idea that, if it could be done in a practical sense, personalisation of assessments and the option to individualise them for individual pupils would be useful.

Teachers were categorical in talking about how very small steps of progress could be important for a pupil and their family. When talking about skills and behaviours identified in Themes 1 and 3, seemingly small progress was described as ‘so important’ and ‘really small yet massive in their achievement’. Teachers mentioned how academic skills are often prioritised even though other progress which may seem small is often a bigger achievement and more important for that pupil. An example was given of a pupil who had managed to communicate how they felt more appropriately, even though they still had difficulties in their classroom learning. Teachers expressed how, in spite of the importance, assessments didn’t allow for the recording of such small amounts of progress.

The conversations around the concept of regression developed in an interesting way. In one focus group there was initially a reluctance to consider regression in skills, abilities or behaviour as something that should be recorded or assessed. Teachers asserted ‘no, we don’t do it’, ‘absolutely no way we would ever be allowed to say that a child regressed’ and ‘it’s just so negative, isn’t it?’ Gradually, the conversation altered after one of the participants questioned this established need to always make progress. They recognised:

At this point, the participants began to identify that there was nowhere for teachers to show regression in current assessments and, in reality, there are ‘always times where their learning and abilities would regress’. Both focus groups mentioned the summer holidays as times when pupils might present with some regression in skills and behaviour. Participants also acknowledged that major changes at school or home could result in regression and they recognised the importance of identifying regression in terms of addressing the bigger picture for these pupils. One example was the extra support that was able to be provided for a family during a parent’s illness which had only become apparent to the school as a result of the child’s regression. The conversation also mentioned the difficulties of assessing regression, with teachers addressing the fact that once progress was recorded it couldn’t be ‘undone’ on many assessment systems. Some teachers said they felt confident in addressing regression through Individual Education Plans and targets. However, participants stated that few assessments that were used had a facility to show regression. The groups agreed that where regression existed, it is important to be able to show it. During this discussion, one teacher noted the necessity of distinguishing regression from lack of generalisation in skills, for example if a pupil has a change of class teacher. This links to the conversation around difficulties these pupils often have with generalising and the challenge in determining at which point skills have been mastered.

Throughout both discussions, participants on multiple occasions brought up the fact that there was nowhere to record some of the progress they were recognising. This was often in relation to the areas identified in the discussions on barriers to learning and teaching priorities. Teachers often expressed this in a questioning way, for example, ‘where do I put this? Where do I write this down?’ They mentioned that assessments often don’t cover those small aspects of progress which were identified as important to teachers, pupils and parents. One teacher spoke of the creativity needed to ‘try to make it fit’ in situations where progress can’t be recorded straightforwardly within an assessment system. As well as the practicality of having no way to record certain progress, teachers also suggested that there is some progress which can’t be measured. One participant questioned, ‘how do you showcase how willing someone is to want to learn?’ This was similar to the way teachers questioned whether true mastery can ever be determined.

Teachers spoke specifically about the needs of their autistic pupils and the fact that they often didn’t fit into the assessment frameworks and systems used. Teachers mentioned the ‘spiky profile’, the ‘peaks and troughs’ that are characteristic of autism, and the fact that these pupils are ‘not linear with their progress’. One teacher commented:

The same teacher described children on the autism spectrum with intellectual disabilities as being the ‘worst done by’ when it comes to assessment. Teachers also talked about the gaps in learning for these pupils and the need to revisit learning in order to maintain skills. One teacher stated that ‘showing the pattern’ would be better than forcing the learning profiles of autistic pupils to fit into a linear assessment framework.

Finally, teachers identified some aspects of assessment they found helpful and which they would like to see in future assessments. Teachers explained that it was useful when assessments signposted next steps in learning and assisted teachers to set pupil targets. Teachers spoke positively of assessments which break down progress into small steps and help them to understand the progression of a child’s skills in a particular area. One teacher mentioned identifying areas where there are interruptions to development or gaps in learning so that teachers know where further support or interventions are required. Early years teachers across both focus groups showed more satisfaction with the assessments they used and the way they assessed their pupils than the teachers who taught primary or secondary aged pupils.